To some extent, the preoccupation of professional psychologists with behavioral changes have dulled their sensitivity to these remarkable attributes of humans; only with the emergence of the study of cognitive processes as a major area in psychology are these aspects of human behavior being acknowledge and engaged. Yet, less we go too far in the other direction, let us take heed of our limitations as a rational being, for as Bruner (1956, pp. 355-358) points out in criticism of Kelly, we must constantly be aware of the passions we possess which never allow us to be entirely rational.

Decisional perspective

William James attempted to deal with the factors of determinism and free-will not by speculating about the truth or falsity of the respective arguments but by describing the conditions under which people actually “feel” free or compelled. James describes five different types of decisions which individuals make. First, there is “the reasonable type’ which are those cases in which the arguments pro and con “seem gradually and almost insensibly to settle themselves in the mind and to end by leaving a clear balance in favor of one alternative.” (James, 1893, p. 531) One feels no coercion, though being a rather passive observer of the decision-making process. Second, there is a decision which one feels is determined from without, and which he indifferently accepts.

Third is a decision based upon determination from within, yet a determination which is as arbitrary as that in number two. Such a decision is compulsive and is exemplified in the decisions of Luther, Napoleon and other figures with strong emotional tenor. A fourth type of decision results, as a consequence of some externa1 experience or some inexplicable inner change, in a rapid transition from “the easy and careless to the sober and strenuous mood”(James, 1893, p. 533), in an abandonment of trivial or light unresolved problems and a concentration on problems of a “higher” level. These decision-experiences might be termed “mystical”. Finally, a fifth type of decision involving the feeling that “the evidence is all in, and reason has balanced the books.” James characterized this process as “the slow dead heave of the will”. (James, 1893, p. 53).

James placed a great deal of emphasis upon the effort involved in the decision. Freedom is associated with a greater amount of effort, determinism with ease or acquiescence. A great majority of the decisions made by humankind are of the variety which require no effort; therefore, most of our decisions are determined by external objects or forces. However, the fifth type does exist, and forms a base for the development and growth of civilization. Hence, we appear to be capable of freedom.

James believed that we can never resolve the problem of free-will and determinism—at least psychologically—for we can never know the nature or extent of the effort made. After a certain amount of effort has been given to an idea it is manifestly impossible to tell whether either more or less of it might have been given or no ; consequently, when one makes a decision we can never know if the effort exerted in making the decision as the maximum possible, thus making the decision free, or if it was short of maximum, thus making the decision to some extent determined.