Hume encourages us to consider the possibility that our reasoning can be tested against real world experience and that our perceptions can be made more reliable through further observation (or the pseudo-observation of thought experiments). Hume does not offer a true synthesis of reason and experience, but as we have noted in relation to each of the philosophies we have considered, his thinking makes this next step more possible.

Impact of Kant

The faculties or categories of mind that are a central part of Kant’s epistemology underlie most of psychological thinking today. Below we highlight four important areas.

1. Cognitive theory. Cognitive theory attempts to explain behaviour by understanding thought processes. Kant’s notion of categories, as a priori concepts of the mind could be seen as influential in the subsequent development of ideas around the constructs that underpin cognitive theories-the categories, like schema, that are involved in cognitive processing. In addition, Kant was the first to make a systematic distinction between opinion, belief and knowledge and, in so doing, paved the way for later cognitive theories and interventions such as the ABC model of cognitive behavioural therapy.
2. Pragmatism. Pragmatism becomes possible once Kant has made the distinction between knowledge, opinions and beliefs. Knowledge, for Kant, has both objective certainty and subjective validity. Opinion, on the other hand, is both subjectively and objectively insufficient, since it can be neither certain nor valid. Belief, although subjectively sufficient, in that it carries conviction and personal validity, lacks the objectivity that makes it valid for everyone. Kant therefore saw belief as a pragmatic recourse, what we resort to when there is no knowledge. He gives the example of a doctor being required to make a diagnosis based on an educated guess or belief (Rockmore, 2006, p. 77). Pragmatism is sometimes summarised by the phrase ‘whatever works, is likely to be true’ and because our experiences change, ‘whatever works’ also changes. The pragmatic stance suggests that truth is changeable and no one can claim to possess any final or ultimate truth. In coaching, helping the client to appreciate this possibility can often be developmental. Pragmatism also opens the door to experimental or instrumental adoption of a view of reality. Hence, we might ask a client who has become stuck, “If you were not stuck, what would you do next?”, or “What would be possible if you did like your boss?” Students are often sceptical at first about the effectiveness of questions like this, yet discover that changing the reality, albeit temporarily and as part of the thought experiment, often opens up new possibilities.